Tragedy has had a long history in the Western world, dating back to the Tragedies of Ancient Greece, where it is thought to have been born out of worship of Dionysus (God of Wine and Ecstasy, associated with ritual madness). Tragedy was recognized as an official state cult in Athens in 534 BC, often cited as the ‘Golden Age’ of Athenian Tragedy.[1] [2]
Aeschylus
Aristotle
Aristotle wrote Poetics in 335 BCE, 200 years after the Athenian Golden age. His definition of tragedy is succinctly put in the following passage:
“Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions”[4](Section I, Part VI)
Catharsis [New Latin, from Greek katharsis, from kathairein, to purge, from katharos, pure.] is an important concept in tragedy. It is defined as:
“A purifying or figurative cleansing of the emotions, especially pity and fear, described by Aristotle as an effect of tragic drama on its audience. A release of emotional tension, as after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit” [5]
Aristotle also set the basis for the tragic hero, who is essentially good, but has a tragic flaw or ‘hamarthia’, usually arising from ‘hubris’- or an overinflated ego or sense of worth. Poetics gives a more in depth account of this idea, but the basic principles are as follows:
- The hero is a noble or has status in society
- They are essentially great but they are mortal, and have a tragic flaw (hamarthia)
- This flaw leads to their downfall, usually without the immediate intervention of a villain, and it is usually undeserved, the punishment exceeds the crime
- The hero goes under some form of epiphany and ends with a catharsis
Roman Tragedy
The Romans, as with almost everything in their culture, stole tragedy from the Greeks. As with nearly everything again, the Roman form of tragedy was far less sophisticated and philosophical, and more about a show, with use of acrobatics, gladiators, jugglers, chariot races, naumachia (sea battles) and venationes (animal battles). [6] Roman Tragedy began after the first published Latin work of 240 B.C. The First Punic War 264-241 brought the Roman’s into contact with the Greeks.
Seneca
Probably the most famous Roman writer of tragedy, his work was directly influenced by the Greek tragedies, as seen in his re-telling of Sophocles’ Oedipus the King- Oedipus. Seneca’s Oedipus is changed in a few key ways, mainly, in true Roman style, taking out some of the philosophical elements of the original, and adding in violence and blood spectacle.[7] Oedipus has been made into both TV and film adaptations, such as Khodzhakuli’s debut in 2004, Edip- which is the Kirghiz translation of Oedipus.[8]
Claudius also spelled Clodius (flourished 1st century BC), most eminent of the Roman tragedians, contemporary and intimate friend of Cicero, whom he instructed in elocution, and regarded by Horace as the equal of the great Roman comic actor Roscius. Aesopus became completely absorbed in his roles; the biographer Plutarch mentions that, while playing the part of Atreus deliberating revenge, Aesopus forgot himself and in the heat of the moment struck and killed another actor. Aesopus made a last appearance in 55 BC at the dedication of the Roman ruler Pompey’s new theatre; Cicero mentions that Aesopus was advanced in years at that time.[9]
Renaissance Tragedy
Shakespeare
Tragedy was lost with the fall of the Roman Empire, but redeemed in the Renaissance. Shakespeare is often credited with revolutionising and changing the face of tragedy. Professor Helen Cooper described Hamlet as ‘the first psychological tragedy’, and Hamlet is thought to have created the framework for all other tragedies. Hamlet features many of the concepts created or by Aristotle, such as catharsis and a tragic hero with a flaw (arguably hesitation, also could be loving Ophelia, and an inability to play the role he thinks he should). Hamlet has been made into several films, including: Kenneth Branagh’s 1996 full length version, Laurence Olivier’s 1948 version, the Michael Almerevda modern re-telling in 2000 and the TV film of 1965 by Philip Saville.[10]
Another one of Shakespeare’s great tragedies is Romeo and Juliet which sees a true Renaissance twist on the classic tragedy with the love story becoming the central focus. Romeo could be seen to be the tragic hero, but both appear as a victim, which complicates things. Romeo and Juliet both die out of love for each other. The most famous film adaptation is Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 movie which sees the Montagues and Capulets as opposing gangs in modern day ‘Verona Beach’- a fictional location.
Modern Tragedy and Tragedy in film
Nietzsche
In his speculative work on the origins of Athenean tragedy, The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche writes of this "two-fold mood": "the strange mixture and duality in the affects of the Dionysiac enthusiasts, that phenomenon whereby pain awakens pleasure while rejoicing wrings cries of agony from the breast. From highest joy there comes a cry of horror or a yearning lament at some irredeemable loss. In those Greek festivals there erupts what one might call a sentimental tendency in nature, as if it had cause to sigh over its dismemberment into individuals" (Speirs 1999, 21) [11]
Modern tragic playwrights include Tennessee Williams and Henrik Ibsen
Tragedy in film is often seen in romantic films such as:
The Notebook, 2004
An old man tells an old woman the story of Noah and Ally, a young couple who are torn apart by class differences, only to meet years later and re-kindle their love. The ‘twist’ is that the old man and woman are Ally and Noah, Ally having developed dementia and cannot remember who Noah is. They die in bed together.
A young writer falls in love with a performer and prostitute at the Moulin Rouge- Paris’ notorious club. His love is requited, but she is unable to be the person he wants her to be, and ends in tragedy when she dies suddenly from Tuberculosis.
[1] http://faculty.gvsu.edu/websterm/Tragedy.htm Accessed 4th February 2012
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus Accessed 4th February 2012
[3] http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc3.htm Accessed 4th February 2012
[4] Aristotle, Poetics, BCE 335, Source: http://classics.mit.edu//Aristotle/poetics.html, Accessed 4th February 2012
[6] http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd130et/roman.htm#roth Accessed 5th February 2012
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_William_Shakespeare_film_adaptations#Hamlet Accessed 5th February 2012
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